Cloudscape

Updated article: Condensed Light

"It may also be possible all energy has the same constituents as photons are themselves composed of, which would likewise always have the speed of light. What those may be, however, is highly speculative, as they would be beyond the level even of elementary particles. If all elementary particles have the same basic constituents, however, this would explain how elementary particles can bring others into being. Photons themselves can be converted into any kinds of other particles, for instance. Usually, when two particles interact (read collide) with one another with enough energy, their kinetic energy is converted into other particles. However, if two photons interact with one another with enough energy, they are entirely converted into other particles. This is basically the time reversal transformation of the combination of matter and antimatter particles, which yields photons.

When photons are converted into matter, its energy is transferred into these particles. Thus, it is obvious that the energy in the photons is of the same form of that of the particles, and therefore, has the same particles at some level. That all forms of energy can be converted into one another seems to indicate that all energy fundamentally has the same constituents. Otherwise they could interact, but no more.

All this is, however, mere guesswork."

A brief exposition of a theory on the range of forces based on the fact that cross-section of particles decreases with speed.

Particles traveling at higher speeds have a lower cross-section, meaning that they are less likely to interact. An example of this is how fast neutrons are less likely to collide with uranium nuclei to trigger nuclear fission, which is a reason why for some time early experiments with nuclear fission required more energy than they produced.
This is so because the wavelength λ of a particle with frequency f is proportional to its speed v:

Ek = hf = hv/λ

And the higher the wavelength, the smaller the chance that the particle will interact with another: this is intuitive because it then covers less surface area then.
If gravitons travel twenty billion times faster than photons, they are less likely to collide with other particles and therefore less likely to influence them. Because of this they travel a far greater distance before they actually cause gravity, which is why the reach of gravity is so much greater. At a short distance, however, gravity is far weaker.

Finite potential barrier is a term describing a phenomenon in which quanta may spontaneously pass through a barrier of finite potential. The possibility that this happens equals:

P(T) = 1/(1+ 2md^2V/ħ^2)

where

m is the mass of the particle(s),
d is the thickness of the barrier
V is the potential of the barrier
ħ is the Dirac constant (1,05457168 · 10^–34 Js)

For photons, mass varies enormously: as this value is equal to

m = hf/c^2 = h/cλ

and the wavelength may vary from as little as on the order of tens of picometers (10^–11 nm, gamma rays) to as much as on the order of tens of meters (10 nm, micro waves), the mass of one photon may be trillions of times greater than that of another. As a result, the chance of transmission may also be trillions of times greater for one photon than for another. Micro waves will have a far greater chance to be transmitted than gamma rays, which may be one reason why they can so easily cross barriers normally impassable to particles. This could also be why neutrinos are almost impossible to detect. Neutrinos have an extremely small mass, which in the early twenty-first century wasn’t even great enough to be measurable; for some time, they were even thought massless.
In addition, while the net distance photons travel in a specified period remains constant, photons with smaller wavelength will travel a greater gross distance in the same time: the ratio between the angular velocity and the phase velocity is known as the wave vector.

A mole of hydrogen atoms has no *net* charge, yet it would have a total charge of:

Q = 2Ze
= 6,023 · 10^23 · 2 · 1,602 · 10^–19 C
= 1,9298 · 10^5 C

Note that this is only so on an atomic scale: at a subatomic scale, this is even greater, because just like molecules, nucleons in turn consist of charged particles. Thus, if this process were driven further to use all energy of all quarks, this would produce even greater amounts of energy:

Q = Zq + Nq’

where q is the total charge per proton and q’ is the total charge per neutron:

Q = Z(2⅔e + ⅓e) + N(2⅓e + ⅔e)
= ⅓e(5Z + 4N)

It could turn out, however, that quarks themselves are in turn made up of particles which also have a charge, which could then provide even more energy. This is already so for five material constituents once thought “fundamental:” mixtures, compounds, atoms, nucleons, and quarks! Yet, intriguingly, even though massive amounts of charge-energy is stored within all matter, it is seldom noticed - in nature manifesting only in phenomena such as lightning or magnetism.
As physics advances, this symmetry between charge and anti-charge could appear to go on into infinity. And essentially, perhaps all springs from this symmetry: if one adds up the vectors of the kinetic energy of the particles in a gas, the result is zero. Yet, it is evident that any gas has kinetic energy, as is manifested in pressure and temperature. The same applies to everything: fundamentally, the universe has zero net energy, just like the empty space around it. Existence itself may then be a quintessence of holism: the whole is greater than the sum of the parts because the sum of the parts is zero. Therefore, there exists nothing but information. Information is the one thing which can actually be created.
Perhaps mass is nothing more than neutralized charge: if one combines positive and negative charge, the result is mass. As a mass is moved, the namesake charges collide - this could increase the plasticity of larger masses, as they are composed of more charges. A similar effect has been proposed by stochastic electrodynamics, which states, among other things, that electromagnetic drag with vacuum is responsible for inertia.
The law of inertia, in effect, is simply a variant of the law of conservation of energy. If charge in itself has energy, it must therefore obey the law of inertia - and indeed, charge increases with momentum, a phenomenon known as “running.”